Beginning

THE NEW SOCIAL CONTRACT ON SCIENCE: CHALLENGES FOR THE COMMUNICATION OF SCIENCE IN LATIN AMERICA

By Mónica Lozano
Number 65

Summary:
The present article discusses to the limits and the possibilities that has the communication of science and the modafinil without prescription in the context of the developing countries, to contribute to the generation and implementation than `has been denominated new social contract on ciencia'. part of the presentation of the new contract and its implications for the conception of development models and democracy, thence to discuss the assigned paper to the communication of science. With base in this discussion four challenges for the communication of science and the technology in the Latin American countries set out: (1) the necessity to have a critical glance to the problems of social exclusion, (2) its participation in the definition of the social problems and in the promotion of the public participation in science and technology, (3) the inclusion of a perspective from the public policies in science and technology, and (4) the necessity of a conceptual redefinition of the communication of science.

At the moment a strong questioning exists from different sectors about the paper from science and the technology in the contemporary world. One considers, every time with greater force, the necessity to democratise the scientific systems and technological and it is pleaded to establish what new social contract has occurred to call `on ciencia'.

The idea that the scientific and technological systems must be redirected and focus to contribute to the solution of the problems of the society, has had diverse expressions as much from the academic scope as politician.

In Latin America from the author Seventies, modafinil without a prescription example, as Amilcar Herrera (1978) and Francisco Sagasti (1981) would propose the creation of an effective scientific and modafinil without a prescription capacity in the region, directed to look for alternatives for the development that was oriented towards the local needs, that they were endogenous and they arose from the sine of each society, which they were car maintained by cultural means, which they were ecologically correct and that was based on structural transformations of the social relations, economic and to be able and directed to the eradication of social problems like malnutrition, the misery and the ignorance.

As of the Nineties they appear in the international context an increase of the modafinil without a prescription studies of science on the relations modafinil without a prescription science, technology and democracy (for example: modafinil without a prescription 2001; Fuller, 1999; Ezrahi, 1990; I trimmed off lower branches of, 2000, 2007; Lopez Cerezo and González, 2002). We could raise that the investigation on the subject is buy modafinil no prescription under three lines: first, it is buy modafinil no prescription to the theoretical discussion on the necessity of the democratization of science and the normative expositions sustain that it in the contemporary societies; the second line makes reference to those works trims in proposing processes, mechanisms buy modafinil no prescription participation instruments and, the third line, is that one whose emphasis is put in identifying actors, forms or spaces of citizen participation.  

In general terms modafinil without prescription academic expositions modafinil without a prescription for the necessity to democratise the modafinil without a prescription modafinil without prescription science and the technology being generated mechanisms of public participation directed not only to aspects related to the technological identification and regulation of the modafinil without prescription and risks, but also modafinil without a prescription the ample space the more of the address of the policies of science and technology within the societies. In some cases it is gotten to raise the necessity of a participation major in the same process of the development of the scientific researches and technological.

Concerning political uprisings, the World-wide Conference on the Science of Budapest celebrated in 1999, raised like the one of the main challenges of the contemporary world generation of a new social contract for science and the technology, understood like adapting science and the technology to the new political, social and environmental realities. buy modafinil no prescription declaration emphasizes in two of the components of the challenge to make a new social contract: modafinil without a prescription it is the necessity to orient the science modafinil without prescription and technology towards the needs of the populations, so that it causes integral a social development of the countries in which also the social demand without value of market is taken care of and the second is the public necessity abrir to the policy on science and technology to sensitivities and opinions of the affected and interested citizens, so that the practical viability of the innovation is facilitated and it is deepened in the democratization of the systems.

One of the axes of the discussion on this new contract, is the paper assigned to the citizenship generally in this process. Although there is a consensus almost generalized on the importance of the democratization of science and the technology, the referring points are not so clear to what it is due to democratise, who must participate, or on which they are the mechanisms more adapted to modafinil without a prescription out east process.

This work goes modafinil without a prescription especially discuss to the limits and the possibilities that have the communication of science and the technology, and in the context of the developing countries, to contribute to the generation and implementation of this new social contract on science. In the first and second part some elements are discussed that are in the base of the processes to specify the new contract and its implications in the conception of development and democracy. In the third part it realises a description of the modafinil without a prescription of communication and the conceptions on science and development that guide their practices. Finally, in the quarter, some of the most important modafinil without a prescription for the communication of science and the modafinil without a prescription with the aim of contributing to the modafinil without a prescription of the new social contract consider on science, mainly in the Latin American countries.

1. The social contract on science and the technology
The idea that science modafinil without a prescription the technology is means that allow to satisfy the needs with the population and to fortify the social values, and that therefore must be maintained and be supported by the society, have been expressed as the base on which the social contract settles down on science. This idea appears with different shades from century XVIII, and even from the birth of modern science.

It is nevertheless throughout century XX when science and the technology show a gradual passage from the periphery the center modafinil without a prescription the social reflections, political and modafinil without a prescription of the State. The scientific policies, that space in which explicit the social contract on science, is a quite recent phenomenon. It is the appearance in 1945 of the Vannevar Report Bush, Science: The unattainable border, the one that marks the sprouting of a policy for the science coordinated by the State in the West.

The Vannevar report Bush will have a capital importance not only for the United States of the postwar period, but also it will serve as model for the development of the scientific and technological policy of other countries, particularly in the recovery of Europe and Japan of the postwar period and later, in Latin America within the policies for the development.
In essence, the report emphasizes the importance for the country of the modafinil without prescription progress and the direct way modafinil without prescription this progress is incumbent on the State. It indicates, also, the paper of the State in assuring the financing to the scientific research and in preserving the freedom of investigation since this one, in the end, will allow the modafinil without prescription of the public well-being in modafinil without a prescription like the security, the health, the increase of the jobs.

The model of scientific development proposed by the Vannevar report Bush has been known like the linear model of scientific and technological development. That is to say, a model that draws up an air line that goes from basic the scientific research to the technological innovation and the subsequent social welfare, passing through applied science and engineerings.

The report would also raise the birth of a social contract on science: the scientific system receives support of the society by means of the modafinil without a prescription especially for the basic investigation, whose results hardly have a value in the market, stays independent and relatively isolated, that is to say, determines its own rules and I put and, in the long run, the society benefits by means of applied modafinil without a prescription and the technological innovation (I trimmed off lower branches of, 2003).
Studies modafinil without prescription the periodización of the scientific policy show how this modafinil without prescription model of the scientific and technological development is in the base that most of sustains the policy in the area during second half of century XX (Ruivo, 1994).

The intense optimism created during World War II in relation to science and the technology, favored the formulation of this contract on the base of a series of myths on the limitless possibilities of system R+D. modafinil without a prescription (1996, mentioned by Lopez Cherry modafinil without a prescription 2003), indicates the following myths:

• Myth of the infinite benefit: more science and more technology will lead inexorably to more social benefits.
• Myth of the investigation without ties: any reasonable modafinil without a prescription of investigation on fundamental natural processes modafinil without a prescription equally probable that it produces social benefit.
• Myth modafinil without prescription the surrender of accounts: the arbitration between pairs, the modafinil without prescription of the results modafinil without a prescription other controls of the quality of the scientific research sufficiently modafinil without a prescription to account of the responsibilities morals and intellectuals of system R+D.
• Myth of the authority: the scientific research provides an objective base to solve political disputes.
• Myth of modafinil without prescription endless border: the new scientific knowledge generated in the border of science is independent with modafinil without prescription to its practical consequences in the nature and the society.
  

Nevertheless from mid modafinil without prescription series Fifties of events that involved to science and modafinil without prescription technology they generated great questionings on the check policy in target and free hands that the contract supposed. We could indicate four great phenomena: a) the social reactions and the political activism that question the political one on science; b) the academic and cultural discussion; c) the relation between science and company and the changes actually scientist; and d) the increasing world-wide preoccupation by the social exclusion and the poverty.

The social reactions and the political activism that question the political one on science

From half-full of modafinil without prescription fifty a series of situations appeared that did that modafinil without a prescription public admiration by science will begin to have its detractors: the launching of Sputnik I by the old USSR, caused one serious modafinil without prescription political and educative preoccupation as much modafinil without a prescription the EU as in other western countries; the accidents of nuclear reactors, the environmental contamination (in 1962 Silent Spring de Rachel Carson is published, in that it is denounced, among others, the environmental impact of synthetic plagicidas like the DDT), the accidents of the oil ships. The sprouting of the contracultural movement of end of the sixty in Europe and the United States has between its targets not only stablishment but modafinil without a prescription the technology, modafinil without a prescription had become a word with malignant sense, identified with the armament, the greed and the environmental degradation (S. Florman, mentioned by Lopez Cherry tree, 2003). Since then until now the list of accidents and public preoccupations by science and the technology has increased. The subject of the ethical debates generated by the cloning, the genetic modification of foods and the patentamiento of alive beings or the traditional knowledge is some of modafinil without prescription elements that have been introduced to the debate on science.  

The academic and cultural discussion
At the end of the Sixties and beginnings of the seventy, the appearance of a series of studies begins that from the academic scope review and discuss the traditional conceptions that on science and the technology they had stayed until the moment: works from the philosophy, the history and the sociology of science and the technology will raise new ways for the boarding and understanding of science and its relations with the society. They are discussed, among others aspects, the epistemic statute for science, the relation between science and the technology, the paper of the social groups and the power in the production of the knowledge, the ethical responsibilities and morals of the investigation system, the social control mechanisms of science, the paper of the experts in the citizen decision making. Besides the academic reaction, the Literature and diverse forms of cultural expression of massive diffusion have picked up the social preoccupations of what the syndrome of Frankestein is denominated. Frankestein, written in 1818 by Mary Shelley reflects the fear from which the uncontrolled development of science and the technology become against the human being, opening a Box of Pandora with risks that we cannot anticipate. The novel of Shelley novel infinity has followed him on the subject. In century XX these preoccupations have also jumped to the screen: films like Jurasik Park, AI, Matrix, are only some of the abundant examples.

The relation of science and modafinil without a prescription company and the changes actually scientist
As of modafinil without a prescription scientific activity Seventies in the world it undergoes a radical transformation. The development of the technologies of the information, the technological developments of the genetic engeneering and the changes in the scientific policies modafinil without a prescription to promote a participation major of the sectors deprived in the financing of science and the technology, generated the sprouting than it has been denominated in some academic sectors like the tecnociencia (Echeverria, 2003). The more and more important paper buy modafinil no prescription science and the technology in the great basic companies tecnocientífica, cause that the accumulation of knowledge and information settles down and articulates modafinil without buy modafinil no prescription prescription global networks of circulation of the capital becoming a modafinil without a prescription motor in the economic development. More important that the knowledge production, the tecnocientífica company will privilege the production of the innovation. In the tecnociencia, next buy modafinil no prescription the epistemic values they take a very important force the technical values (efficiency, effectiveness, utility, functionality, applicability, etc.) and the economic and enterprise values. Not only the epistemic impacts are evaluated, but, first of all, the economic incidence of the resulting innovations and the capacity to obtain financing for new projects. The tecnocientíficos results become merchandise and, instead of to communicate it frees and publicly in specialized magazines, they happen in property deprived from first stage of investigation. The prime patentability on the publicabilidad. The incidence of the tecnocientífico model in the daily modafinil without prescription is distinctive. And between the tensions that it generates it is the subject of the private appropriation and the public appropriation of the knowledge. Important lines of investigation socially but with few possibilities of generating benefits economic (for example the financing of the investigation of the vaccine against the malaria), the cost of some innovations or products that become inaccessible for great layers of the population (for example medecines for the treatment of HIV in Africa), the knowledge like good deprived with to be debated publicly difficulties, etc., are some of the modafinil without a prescription that appear in this aspect.

The increasing modafinil without a prescription preoccupation by the phenomena of social modafinil without a prescription and poverty
From the ninety the international reaction by excellent social modafinil without a prescription takes force. The subject of the modafinil without a prescription for all like a basic right, the segregation of sexes, the digital breach and the accelerated impoverishment and inequality of great layers of the population and whole regions, have returned the glance on the promise of the country from jauja that was expected for science. Thus, next to the profits of science and the technology in the last century, also we were with another series of data: not only it modafinil without a prescription increased to the life expectancy average of the human beings, but also the inequalities in this heading between developed countries have been made more evident and not desarrollados1. While we are able to produce foods genetically modified that have allowed to increase the nourishing production in great zones of the planet, also we have observed the greatest extreme hungers than they have affected whole towns that, incapable to follow the rate of the globalisation, are lost in the attempt their forms of traditional production; in 2008 the ghost of the nourishing crisis crossed not only the countries nondeveloped, but also it touched the doors of other countries that were been other people's to these problematic ones. Mortal the biomedical investigations have managed to eradicate virus like the smallpox, but also we found that in the countries of the denominated Third World diseases like the tuberculosis have reappeared, that a few years back had managed to be eradicated. Thus, at the same time as we increased the capacity to accumulate and to use the knowledge, the society of the information been has accompanied by the greatest processes by social polarization, exclusion and poverty, not only of human groups, but of whole countries and regions. This exclusion has taken to raise the existence of a Fourth World, much more excluded that the Third World and whose distribution no longer is characterized for being geographic, but that extends generally even in the most powerful economies. We can pass of the First World to the Fourth World crossing kilometers from the center of Manhattan. But equal it happens in Sao Paulo, Bogota or City of Mexico.

The report on the Human Development of the 1999 PNUD faced of a direct way the subject of the potential social impacts of the different lines of work in the priorities of the investigation. Its conclusion is forceful: in the research programs the modafinil without a prescription is the money that decides and modafinil without a prescription them social needs. At present more money in resources for the R+D in nuclear weapons is spent, new cosmetics and tomatos of slow maturation, that in the search of resistant cultures to the drought for little productive earth, the buy modafinil no prescription against the malaria or the objective of the universal education.

The report of the 2001, To put the technological advance to the service of the human development, shows how the expansion of the new technologies of the communication has abierto more and more great breaches between modafinil without a prescription they have and they do not have access to these developments. While 92% of the world-wide population have never acceded to Internet (World Bank, 2001), 80% of the users are concentrated more in the developed countries of the OECD, to which only 14% of the world-wide population correspond. The amplitude of international band in Africa is minor who existing in Sao modafinil without prescription (Brazil), but the amplitude of band modafinil without prescription all Latin America is equivalent as well, in general characteristics, to the one of the city of Seoul (Republic of Korea). Many of the technological inventions that date from several decades not have universalised, for example:

• The electricity has still not reached about 2,000 million people, that is to say, a third of the world-wide population.
• The telephone exists for more than one hundred years, nevertheless 80% of the world-wide population has realised never a call (World Bank, 2001).
• The advances of modafinil without a prescription medicine that have given foot to great profits in the survival still follow outside the reach of many. About 2,000 million people lack access to essential medecines like penicillin. In the developing countries not yet the therapy of oral rehydration in 38% of the cases of modafinil without prescription is used, and only half of the modafinil without a prescription of a year of age is immunized against difteria, the cough ferina, tetanus, the poliomielitis and the measles.

Although modafinil without a prescription causal nor determinist relation cannot buy modafinil no prescription enters buy modafinil no prescription of the knowledge and increase of the inequality levels, or the modafinil without a prescription of new social problems, the present results show a tendency modafinil without a prescription is necessary is assumed, understood and taken care of.

The new social contract modafinil without a prescription science
The necessity of the modafinil without a prescription of a new contract, glimpses then as a form to return to modafinil without a prescription initial modafinil without prescription that science and the technology they can modafinil without prescription to the solution of the social problems. Nevertheless, for it, the necessity of a social control settles down on science on the part of the society values that it finances and it.

We can summarize the terms modafinil without a prescription modafinil without a prescription new contract on the base in two fundamental agreements: on the one hand, the society as a whole through State finances science and the technology, in recognizes as much them like suitable means modafinil without a prescription satisfy the values with cultural development, well-being, fairness and social justice (understood like the modafinil without a prescription of the basic needs of all the modafinil without a prescription of the society). On the other hand, the satisfaction of these values is not something that is expected at the end of a chain like a result of the same dynamics of the scientific system: it is the society the one that would indicate which are the values that wish to satisfy. The contract raises the necessity that the scientific and technological system is recognized, and is also clear, like part of the amplest economic, political, educative, social and cultural system directed all of them to the satisfaction of these social values. In as much part of this ampler system, the technological scientist and would assume commitments in the search of buy modafinil no prescription to social problems (I trimmed off lower branches of, 2003). This framework can be outlined of the following way:

Source: modafinil without prescription trimmed off lower branches of, 2003.

Within this scheme modafinil without modafinil without a prescription prescription basic investigation cannot separate modafinil without a prescription other forms of investigation (the strategic one, modafinil without a prescription applied one, directed to modafinil without prescription innovation and the development) in as much estimates processes of feedback among them. The idea of an air line give ins from the basic investigation to the applied one, by the idea of a network of modafinil without prescription between the diverse forms of investigation; and this one is realised within a social frame that take into modafinil without a prescription I interest, values and needs of groups like the industralists, the civil servants and the citizens, all of them with capacity to influence in the investigation.

2. The question on the development and the citizen participation
The exposition of this new social contract on science is placed in the heart of two fundamental subjects for our countries: the question on the development and the question on the democracy and the citizen participation.

Proposing a new social contract on science essentially implies a critic to the model modafinil without prescription implicit development in a linear model, that has been understood, modafinil without prescription two perspective: first, in that it is conceived to him like the process to ascend from the delay to the development - or from the tradition to modernity either raising the steps of stairs, in essential unique and or the well-known modafinil without a prescription or or following an air line that advances inexorably. From this perspective, fomenting the investigation will bring a social development consequently. modafinil without a prescription it affirms that the modafinil without a prescription to reach the conditions of life characteristic of the industrialized countries is the economic growth. A corollary of that thesis is that the key of the advance consists of obtaining elevated levels of investment, by means of the internal saving and/or the investment or helps external. Thus the production, starting up is increased of substantial way a maintained process whose same dynamics is improving the situation of the society generally. In this optics, the development gets to identify itself with the economic growth. From this perspective, the scientific and technological development submits to the modafinil without a prescription that it has to contribute to the economic growth. To the equal than it happens to the first position, the social development is seen at the end of a chain and the emphasis of the intervention takes place or in increasing to the production of science and technology or, in generating the conditions that allow an economic growth.

One of modafinil without a prescription fundamental learnings of last the two decades is that the development of the societies spontaneously does not modafinil without prescription place consequently last to cause the development in modafinil without prescription and technology or to increase the production economic of a nation. On the other hand, the results in the countries in via of development have also shown the unsuitability of a model based on the economic growth. The case of Argentina or the countries buy modafinil no prescription puts in evidence the fact that to increase the modafinil without prescription of the countries it is not guarantee of a greater social development, buy modafinil no prescription of solution of problems like the inequidad or the exclusion.

Perhaps the element fundamental to assume the new social contract is modafinil without a prescription raise modafinil without a prescription social development modafinil without a prescription like something to hope at modafinil without a prescription modafinil without a prescription buy modafinil no prescription the chain, but as something thus the society is modafinil without a prescription from the beginning and works to reach it. Questions because it is understood by development modafinil without a prescription a society and which are the ways to reach it, take sense in as much we recognize that they are the social groups that can define what type of society wishes and they are committed in reaching it. Science and the technology appear, then, like consumptions that can contribute to this process, but they are only part of a social modafinil without a prescription ampler than it must be it jeopardize with this modafinil without a prescription One assumes them like complex activities that although presents/displays results that can be unpredictable and contingent, also they can be guided by a society finances that it and that can raise and decide aspects of its address. What type of investigation finances, which are the high-priority lines of investigation, how the results of science and the technology are used, are decisions that correspond to the society and they cannot be left to the logics of the market which they guide the new forms of tecnocientífico development. And it is here where the communication I could contribute in the process of the construction of social agreements.

As of modafinil without a prescription modafinil without a prescription the Program of United Nations modafinil without a prescription the Development (the PNUD) initiated the annual publication of the Report on Human Development. The most important element of these information is that they propose a new glance exceeds what would have to be the social development of the countries, changing the emphasis in the economic aspects modafinil without a prescription measurement to evaluate the development, and proposing a vision centered on the man. Arocena and buy modafinil no prescription (2003) in their analysis of the problem of under-development, propose a notion of development understood like human modafinil without prescription viable car. The modafinil without a prescription of human development is retaken of Amartya Sen (2000, [1999]), for that development is understood like the expansion of the liberties of the human beings that is to say, the expansion of the possibilities of the human beings of constructing worthy lives, in modafinil without prescription they can take to the practice the options that value and have chosen libremente3. This conception of the development would include within himself its normative direction, but also it would become a strategic key in the sense that the capacities of people, to decide and to implement what they value, are the main tools in the confrontation to the under-development, that broadly speaking can be modafinil without a prescription like lack of liberties. The notion of modafinil without a prescription development of Arocena and Sutz, is defined as the development that the today generations can take without buy modafinil no prescription the possibilities of the future generations to construct their own human options of development. This vision implies that the people do not have to be modafinil without a prescription like patients but like agents in the modafinil without a prescription of the development.

This modafinil without a prescription of development gives to modafinil without a prescription citizens not only the right, but also the responsibility to choose what understands by a worthy life, modafinil without a prescription they can identify the options that value modafinil without a prescription that choose the type of life to which they can accede. Science modafinil without a prescription the technology appear then between the options modafinil without a prescription which it is necessary to know and to evaluate for being able to choose modafinil without prescription freely. It also supposes to think about the social impact and the nature of the options that are chosen within the framework of a reflection on the risks and the opportunities that imply certain forms of life and development. Science and the technology appear like strategies to reach development options and in that measurement they are susceptible of a social control that can be exerted from informed modafinil without a prescription decisions and it jeopardize. Unlike other slight knowledge of development - by example that one that understands the development like the ascent towards the progress raising the steps of unique essential stairs in and or the well-known buy modafinil no prescription or the one that this notion of car-viable human development compares social development to economic growth it suggests on the one hand does not exist a unique one and only way to reach the development and on the other that the same notion of development is subject of a buy modafinil no prescription in as much is the same societies and their actors who decide that type of society wishes.

3. The communication of science and the technology
The happened changes actually scientist throughout the last decades have generated not only transformations in the land of the public policies of science and technology, but also in the conception of the communication. In the two last decades the communication of science and the technology have journeyed in the international scope of positions that privilege the unidirectional transmission of scientific knowledge to a public who assumes itself unaware of science, to positions that privilege participating processes and of double via in the relation science and society and where more than to modafinil without a prescription scientific contents it is tried to promote a modafinil without a prescription between scientists and the society on subjects of interest (often controversial) and in which assumes so much for the scientists as for the public different types from experticia.

The first position, that has been characterized by some modafinil without prescription like the model of deficit in modafinil without a prescription communication, buy modafinil no prescription of the general concept that the buy modafinil no prescription lacks scientific and technological information and that the efforts of the communication go to replace modafinil without a prescription deficiency of the public looking for it average the most suitable ones to obtain it and trying to translate the scientific knowledge so that is comprehensible for a nonexpert public. The emphasis is put on three aspects: the content, which is disclosed, spreads, popularizes, is information of scientific and technological type; the means, this information are transmitted through massive means of communication; and modafinil without prescription party, its public, who generally assumes itself modafinil without a prescription bequeath in scientific matter (Lozano, 2005a).

One of the ideas modafinil without a prescription underlies to this model, is that the present crisis of confidence on the part of the public towards science modafinil without prescription the scientists essentially must to a lack of understanding of science and the technology and the modafinil without a prescription in which this takes place, and that as the people have major information will be modafinil without a prescription to appreciate plus science and the technology and to support them.
The second position, that proposes a democratic model in the communication, is located within a discussion on the paper modafinil without prescription the public modafinil without prescription in the definition of policies and decision making in modafinil without prescription and technological policy and, particularly, in the participating evaluation of technologies.
This model recognizes modafinil without prescription existence of a variety of actors (social scientists, experts, politicians, industralists, groups) involved in the decision making on science modafinil without prescription technology modafinil without a prescription understands the modafinil without a prescription of confidence in science and the technology as the result of the plurality of values and interests that enter game in the decision making on the subject. Also it recognizes that all the actors have different forms from experticia and that all is equally valuable modafinil without a prescription the time of decision making on science and technology. 

This model implies, necessarily, the redefinition of the strategies through which it operates. In the last years, and particularly in the industrialized modafinil without a prescription the sprouting of new forms of modafinil without a prescription of science has been seen based on the principle of a constructive modafinil without prescription between citizens and citizens and scientists (for buy modafinil no prescription the juries of citizens, votings by buy modafinil no prescription opinion and the conferences of consensus).

The fundamental modafinil without prescription between these two models we can outline them of the following way:

Picture 1: Models of Communication of science and the technology

Source: This analytical picture was modafinil without a prescription from the proposal of Durant on models of public understanding of science, engineering and the technology (1999).

For Durant (1999) the sprouting modafinil without a prescription the democratic model can be understood like answer to modafinil without a prescription changes of the democratic society at the end of century XX, within a context of the globalisation.

4. The new social contract and the challenges for the communication
A common denominator in the evolution modafinil without prescription the public policies in science and modafinil without a prescription and of the models of communication, is the displacement towards modafinil without a prescription participating and democratic approaches in which he is clear the different existence of a plurality of social actors with interests, aims, values and knowledge. modafinil without a prescription the same way, the conceptions of science and the technology have journeyed towards models understand that them like crossed social and cultural phenomena, also, by these pluralities.

The discussion that is modafinil without a prescription the base of this process indicates to the communication like an activity that is not neutral politically, modafinil without a prescription where their objectives, the vision of science and technology, the public notion that is constructed, respond on the one hand to the forms in which it on the other, develops science and the technology in specific social and cultural contexts and to the modafinil without a prescription and values and the visions of society and of development of those who carry out this activity (Lozano, 2005a). It is from this frame from that we can think the paper of the communication about the construction of a new social contract for science and the technology and about its contribution to the social development through these, especially for the context of the developing countries.

An analysis between the interrelation that exists between models of development of science and the communication models (Lozano, 2005b) shows how the conception of a linear model of scientific and technological development favors a model of deficit in the communication. The idea of a valuingly neutral science, of a science guided only by the search of new knowledge, and whose results - anyone that was will be useful at some time dice for the society, favors the development of strategies of communication directed to disclose the results of the scientific research, their possible applications in the daily life and, in the best one of the cases, the methodologic processes in which scientific knowledge takes place.
Nevertheless, the emergencia of the tecnociencia modafinil without a prescription the last decades of century XX modafinil without a prescription the recognition in which in the production of the modafinil without a prescription modafinil without a prescription technological knowledge more dimensions participate many than the modafinil without a prescription ones, indicates how although to spread knowledge modafinil without a prescription can modafinil without a prescription useful and necessary, modafinil without a prescription insufficient when dealing with the new social, political and economic dimensions in which the scientific and technological development develops. The perspective of a new social contract suggests the idea that the communication must be led, in addition, to promote answers adapted to these new forms in which the scientific and technological knowledge in specific societies takes place, and to contribute to the reflection exceeds what type of society and development that is desired. It is from this perspective in which I raise some of the challenges for the communication of science within democratic models.

Challenge one: modafinil without a prescription critical glance to the social exclusion

The context where it operates the communication of science and the technology, modafinil without a prescription space woven between the tecnociencia and the society, could be modafinil without a prescription of three ways, according to the paper that assumes the society in this dyad:

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• The society like subject excluded from the tecnocientíficas practices, that could appear when great layers of the population, due to its characteristics and capacities, does not count like users nor like consumers of products of the tecnociencia, or science.
• The society like passive subject of the actions of science and the tecnociencia and, in that measurement, the subjects are important in as much usuary and consuming from tecnocientíficos products and their values are taken into account in as much their satisfaction buy modafinil no prescription important for the profit of these objectives.
• The society like subject assets in modafinil without a prescription scientific and tecnocientíficas modafinil without a prescription Here the subjects, through groupings, participate in the definition of the policies of science and technology, in the definition of useful projects of investigation to their interests, in the evaluation of the risks and possibilities that stops the society and the environment involves these actions.
  

The paper that corresponds to him to the communications programs of science would be modafinil without prescription obtaining that more and more the social subjects are constituted in active subjects in their relation with the tecnociencia and science generally.

If modafinil without a prescription answer to modafinil without prescription fundamental questions of the communication, does not take into account the precise conditions of the population to modafinil without a prescription it goes in the developing countries (indigenous, minority farmers, groups, marginal groups urban, rural groups), it will be ended up making programs that instead of to contribute to the fundamental problems, are contributing and without seting buy modafinil no prescription it, to maintain the distinction between excluded and not excluded groups. The objectives, contents and strategies cannot become by outside a deep discussion why they are made and which is the objective that is persecuted with these strategies, and of a buy modafinil no prescription reflection of how the scientific activity in the world is structured, and in particular in the developing countries, and which is the critical role that the managers of these programs play. What science communicates, what contents include and what strategies are used, must happen through a deep recognition of the population groups to which they go: its interests, their needs, their values.

From this perspective, the projects and modafinil without a prescription programs of science must give answer to needs of the contexts in which they are developed, to the forms of organization and structuring of the daily life, to the real problems and the capacity of answer of the community. Strategies like for example the one of the centers of science, or the scientific media, must be rethink so that, far from to be responding to global models, they give account of the own peculiarities of the population to which primarily they go, and must include a reflection between global and the premises, in the development of the programs.

Challenge two: the definition of the social problems and the public modafinil without prescription in science and technology

The assumption of a new social contract on science emphasizes the necessity of a science and modafinil without prescription technologies so that they contribute to the solution of the social problems, productive and environmental of a society. This challenge has at least three edges: (1) to define which modafinil without a prescription the social problems, productive and environmental of a society; (2) to define which are the ways that modafinil without a prescription be accepted social and environmentally to do against these problems; (3) to define who are the actors who must as much participate in the definition the problems as of the ways that are chosen to solve them.

One of the bottle necks that are due to face in this way is to find social and environmental the mechanisms which they allow to define the nature of the productive problems: what for some sectors of the population it can be understood like problem, for other sectors can be seen like opportunity. A similar situation modafinil without a prescription to the definition of the most appropriate ways to do against these problems. The ways can multiple and sometimes be modafinil without a prescription Finally, as far as which they are the social actors to whom these decisions are incumbent on, exist sectors that traditionally have modafinil without a prescription excluded from the decision making exceeds what has to do on its life and it has thought that certain sectors exist that can make the decisions on the majority from the population.

A perspective of modafinil without prescription autosustentable human development within the framework raises the necessity that modafinil without a prescription are the diverse modafinil without prescription actors, of democratic societies, that take the decisions on their lives and the options to solve the conflicts. The communication strategies can contribute of way fundamental to tender bridges between the diverse actors and to obtain a real social participation in these processes in the construction of collective agreements. modafinil without prescription can, also, help to fortify the relations of modafinil without prescription between the actors and to raise mechanisms that take into account and look for exits to the power relations which they are exerted between these.

The challenges for the communication are complex: on the one hand to obtain that the diverse social modafinil without a prescription can participate in the recognition modafinil without a prescription their modafinil without a prescription social modafinil without a prescription environmental problems, and that in addition manage to integrate themselves in their solution. For this it is necessary to know the results science, but also not only to understand how type of alternatives works, which are their limits and their possibilities, whereupon is counted and how and in what conditions it is possible that an alternative of scientific and technological type is the more efficient to a cultural alternative ligature to their tradition or vice versa. But also to include the form in which the cultural traditions and practices can contribute not only to the development of the communities, but also to the regional and modafinil without a prescription scientific and technological development. It implies, also, to influence in the generation of spaces of public participation the decisions of science and the technology, so that the lines of investigation include, of high-priority way, own problems of the contexts and particularly, of the excluded groups, besides inclining by a greater entailment of the scientists to the solution of these problems, not only from the epistemic dimension, but also from the multiple dimensions that the social life of the population has.

Challenge three: the perspective from the public policies in science and technology

The recognition of the political dimension of the communication, of the implicit values, puts in evidence the necessity modafinil without a prescription this is assumed like a fundamental element in the development of the modafinil without a prescription in the social processes. One of the modafinil without a prescription to assume the political dimension of the modafinil without a prescription modafinil without prescription its capacity to contribute to the development of science and the technology in specific social contexts, implies that the policies and strategies in communication of science and the technology cannot continue becoming by outside general policies in science and technology for the countries. They must start off of a serious reflection of the needs and prospective of science and the technology in the region to be able to modafinil without a prescription really, to the development of these policies. modafinil without a prescription it is required of a joint of these policies of communication of science with other policies that involve to science and the technology: the educative, social policies, of health, since the risk is run of failing to take advantage of the possibilities of a joint work.
Assuming buy modafinil no prescription of science and technology guided by a new social contract on science implies modafinil without a prescription understand modafinil without a prescription production of knowledge like a process complex that implies on the one hand a reflection on the capacity of science and the technology to contribute to the processes of social development, productive, environmental, cultural; but also like a space which diversity of actors with interests, values and capacity of different participation enter game. The communication can contribute to the construction of the social agreements, nevertheless the same policies must it to incorporate mechanisms in which the processes of public participation are legitimized.

Challenge four: the redefinition of the communication

One of the fundamental problems which many of the programs face and experiences that work in the interphase science/society in the developing countries, is in the same conception of the communication and the model of deficit on which it is based. A perspective of the communication from the frame of a new social contract on science suggests the necessity of a reframing of its definition, objectives and strategies, so that it incorporates a conception of science and the technology and its relation with the complex and much more less idealistic society.

The communication of science and the technology, its concepts, its practices, the conception of public buy modafinil no prescription whom it goes, buy modafinil no prescription like a system that it changes and it becomes following the social conditions, historical and of development of science. Far from to deal with static concepts, we were with a system in constant change. And the new challenges that raise the new visions to us on science and the technology, the social development, the relations with the environment, raise the necessity to ask on the communication and its reaches to us. 

Definition traditionally modafinil without a prescription accepted of communication, and that we can synthesize as the process to communicate information of scientific and technological type to a public I bequeath through diverse means, with the aim of informing, to generate understanding and valuation by science and the technology, shows a series of limitations within the assumption of a new social contract on science. First, because to assume a new contract it would imply a process to us to understand that it is not only the information of unique scientific and technological type the pertinent one. Understanding the production of knowledge as realised in a complex frame of relation between the diverse actors and social systems implies to the communication to take into account these other knowledge, values, I interest. Secondly, because he would imply to assume modafinil without a prescription the public is not I bequeath. He modafinil without a prescription a series of knowledge and experticias, values and attitudes that enter game when seeing led us the decision making that involves to science and the technology. Third party, because a model of communication in double would assume via in which also the scientific modafinil without a prescription technological system receives and values the originating information of the other systems and social actors and is modified by her. Quarter, because in spite of modafinil without a prescription importance of informing, to generate understanding and modafinil without a prescription modafinil without a prescription science, also it is required that the communication contributes to the conflict resolution that involves scientific and technological modafinil without a prescription and to think the possibility that the social science and problematic technology they contribute to the solution of specific identified by the actors.

The redefinition of the communication from these considerations would imply, also, the necessity to rethink relevance to continue using terms like spreading, vulgarization or communication of science modafinil without a prescription the technology. The use of these terms, product of a tradition and important processes of social negotiation and attempts of planning (more or less systematic), brings of explicit way a series of considerations about the activity and their public: to put within reach of the public, to set out a science, or a technical matter anyone, in reasonable form to the common people, to give a character of popular to modafinil without a prescription implies within himself a difusionista conception of the activity. Assuming an idea of more complex science, of buy modafinil no prescription public of knowledge, saberes, useful experticias not only for him but also for the decision making in science and technology, to think forms of communication about double via, imply the necessity to construct a much more complex definition and to assume, also, a term reflects that it.

In the specific case of Latin America the term of social appropriation of science has seted out and the technology (Inn ET to, 1995) and has been understood like a strategy of change of articles of incorporation and cultural directed to obtain in the social scope a critical reflection on science and the technology, a critical relation with the knowledge and a promotion of the scientific culture. It seems to be a good base to initiate a discussion and to realise a more systematic reframing of the activity within the Latin American context, that must be supported in a greater knowledge of how the activity in the region and of the modifications has been structured that have been undergoing in the process of appropriation and adjustment of these programs and experiences. This is still a pending task.

This last point also takes to me to buy modafinil no prescription modafinil without prescription brief commentary about modafinil without prescription necessity to buy modafinil no prescription in the formation modafinil without a prescription the signallers of science and the technology in Latin American contexts. Generally (and with important exceptions) the formation has gone to favor the technical aspects. Nevertheless, assuming one more a ampler perspective of the activity modafinil without a prescription imply on the one hand to favor the formation of investigators in the subject of the communication, that it allows the creation of a critical mass that helps to include/understand better the activity in the region and to propose ways within the recognition of specific needs. The subjects for the investigation are ample and diverse, among them we could indicate: modafinil without a prescription is structured the activity in the modafinil without a prescription , how takes place the relation between modafinil without a prescription knowledge and modafinil without prescription knowledge? , what type of scientific and technological social conflicts involves knowledge? , how they are modafinil without a prescription Also, the formation of the signallers must also go to that these have one more a more comprehensive vision first, of how structures the scientific and technological practice in the region; secondly, of the relations between science, technology and the society in specific and local social and cultural contexts and third party, of the exploration of modafinil without a prescription and alternatives of communication in double via, in the modafinil without prescription resolution and the decision making that involves scientific and technological knowledge.

To conclusion way
In synthesis, it is possible to be said that to approach modafinil without a prescription communication from a perspective that involves the new social contract on science, the policies modafinil without a prescription their cultures and the contemporary forms of modafinil without a prescription of the knowledge, raises an excellent discussion on the communication and its objectives, their strategies and the notion of public to whom one goes.

The idea that science and the technology is means that modafinil without a prescription to satisfy the needs with the population and to fortify the social values, and that therefore must be maintained and be supported by the society, have been expressed not only in the old social contract on science, but it even appears from the birth of modern science. The element that is really novel in the new contract is that it defines the agents of the scientific system as leaves from a ampler system it jeopardize in the search of solutions to social problems and not like independent beings that determine their rules and goals from their own systems of values.

The social contracts on science are bound to the models modafinil without a prescription production of the knowledge, but also to models of communication of science. While the modafinil without a prescription social contract develops in the context of a linear model of production of knowledge and with a superiority of a model of deficit in the communication; the new social contract develops in a complex model of knowledge production and would promote the importance of a democratic model in the communication.

Both models can coexist and are important in modafinil without a prescription profit of the buy modafinil no prescription targets that set out. Nevertheless, in agreement with the challenges of the construction of a scientific and modafinil without a prescription policy that takes into account, on the one hand the necessity to promote more democratic and participating approaches and, on the other, the necessity to look for arranged ways regional the scientific and technological development, seems that an important mission for the countries in via of development is to promote an incorporation of democratic models in the subject of the communication. 

If we took into account the own conditions of the tecnocientífico development in the contemporary societies and the implicit challenges to the societies in modafinil without a prescription of development, one of the fundamental elements to which modafinil without a prescription can contribute the communication of science and the technology is to the development of the capacities and possibilities of the public participation in science. In this aspect the challenges for the communication are several:

• To obtain that buy modafinil no prescription population generally modafinil without a prescription participate in modafinil without a prescription recognition of its productive, social and modafinil without a prescription problems, and that in addition manages to integrate itself in its solution. For this it is necessary, to know the results science, but also not only to understand how type of alternatives modafinil without a prescription which are their limits and their possibilities, modafinil without a prescription is counted. But also it implies to generate the conditions so that certain tie social sectors of more direct way with the scientific development of the countries (politicians, administrators, scientists, industralists) can understand science like means that can contribute, besides economic aims, to the solution of social and productive problems of the region. In essence to the development understood from an ample dimension of the autosustentable human development.
• To influence in the generation of spaces of public participation in the decision making of science and the technology such as the definition of high-priority lines of investigation; the evaluation of the natural, scientific and technological risks; the exploration of socially viable scientific and technological solutions; etc.
• To incline by a greater entailment modafinil without a prescription the scientists in the definition and solution of these social problems, not only from the epistemic dimension, modafinil without a prescription also from the multiple dimensions that the social life of the population has. This implies to affect the culture of the investigators so that it is oriented towards the perception of the problems of the societies to which they belong and to the valuation within the scientific activity of the knowledge and the experticia of other social groups.

Unlike which it happens in the industrialized countries where the public participation in science and technology has occurred as a buy modafinil no prescription of the fortification of the democratic processes and the educative high levels (Jong and Mentzel, 2001), the context of the countries in via of development the participation it becomes a strategy to consolidate the democracy and to contribute to the objective of the modafinil without a prescription for all the life.

Mónica Lozano

Psychologist of the University of the Valley, Colombia, teacher and modafinil without a prescription in Philosophy of the Science of the Independent modafinil without a prescription University of Mexico. modafinil without a prescription Society of the Knowledge and Cultural Diversity. Coordination of Humanities. Independent National university of Mexico, Mexico.